Aromatherapy : Essential oils

 

Aromatherapy is one of the most familiar uses. 

When inhaled, aroma molecules stimulate the olfactory system, which is closely linked to the parts of the brain that control emotions and memory. This is why certain scents can quickly calm the mind or lift the mood. Lavender oil is widely used to reduce stress, improve sleep and ease anxiety.

Essential oils are also commonly used in skincare:-

Tea tree and lavender oils are popular in skincare for their antibacterial and soothing properties and are often used to manage acne, minor wounds and skin irritation. When applied carefully and in diluted form, these oils can complement conventional treatments

What is Essential Oil?

Ans: 

Essential oils — highly concentrated aromatic extracts from plants, are no longer niche luxury products found only in spas or perfumes.

 They are increasingly used in food preservation, natural cosmetics, herbal medicines, bio-pesticides and eco-friendly household cleaners. This renewed interest is driven by a global shift towards cleaner labels, sustainable production and traceable supply chains.

Which are Aromatic crops ?

Ans: 

Aromatic crops such as lemongrass, mint, citronella, eucalyptus and vetiver.

Essential oils are natural, aromatic substances produced by plants and stored in different parts such as leaves, flowers, bark, roots and seeds. They are called “essential” because they capture the plant’s distinctive fragrance along with many of its beneficial properties. 

Leaves are among the most common sources of essential oils. Oils extracted from leaves often help plants defend themselves against insects and diseases:-

i)Eucalyptus oil, obtained from eucalyptus leaves, is widely used to relieve cold and breathing discomfort. 

ii)Peppermint oil from mint leaves is known for its cooling effect and is commonly found in balms, teas and digestive remedies

Flowers produce oils mainly to attract pollinators such as bees and butterflies. As a result, flower oils are often light, sweet-smelling and soothing:-

i) Jasmine oil is prized for its rich aroma and calming effect, while chamomile oil is commonly used to ease skin irritation, inflammation and stress.

Bark and wood contain oils that protect plants from pests and infections:- i)Cinnamon oil, extracted from tree bark, has a warm, spicy scent and is widely used for its antimicrobial properties. 

ii)Sandalwood oil, obtained from the heartwood of sandalwood trees, has a long history of use in perfumes, religious practices and skin care.

Roots and underground parts store strong-smelling compounds that can be highly potent. 

i)Ginger oil, derived from ginger rhizomes, is commonly used to support digestion and reduce inflammation. 

ii)Vetiver oil, obtained from grass roots, has an earthy fragrance and is widely used in aromatherapy for relaxation and mental balance.

Seeds are a less common source of essential oils, but they can produce powerful aromas:- 

Anise oil, extracted from anise seeds, has a sweet, liquorice-like smell and is traditionally used to aid digestion.

Essential oils reflect how plants interact with their environment, such as defending themselves, attracting pollinators and surviving stress, while offering humans natural solutions for everyday use.

 Many essential oils are known for their antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and immune-boosting properties.

For topical application, essential oils should always be diluted with a carrier oil such as coconut, jojoba or almond oil.

Precaution: -

Applying undiluted oils can cause skin irritation or allergic reactions. A simple patch test on a small area of skin can help check for sensitivity. Ingesting essential oils is generally not recommended unless done under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional. Many oils can be toxic if swallowed improperly or cause serious health problems. Some oils that are safe for humans can be harmful to animals and exposure through inhalation or skin contact may lead to adverse effects. When used responsibly and in appropriate amounts, essential oils can be both safe and beneficial.

Cocculus hirsutus (Doosarabali )

 Cocculus hirsutus  (Doosarabali ) 

Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels, commonly known as Inkberry or Jal Jamni, is a fast-growing, perennial climber belonging to the family Menispermaceae. Widely distributed across tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Africa, this plant holds significant ethnomedicinal importance in traditional systems such as Ayurveda and folk medicine. Various parts of the plant-including leaves, stems, and roots-are used for treating fever, skin infections, diabetes, liver disorders, inflammation, and reproductive ailments. Botanically, the plant is characterized by hairy stems and ovate-cordate leaves with dense trichomes. Its diagnostic features, such as unisexual flowers and curved reniform seeds, assist in its correct identification. Phytochemical investigations have revealed the presence of diverse bioactive compounds These metabolites exhibit a wide range of pharmacological activities. This review comprehensively covers the plant’s taxonomy, morphology, traditional uses, phytochemical profile, and pharmacological properties, supported by recent scientific findings.

Cocculus hirsutus has been used in Indian traditional medicine systems such as Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha, as well as by tribal communities. 

• Whole Plant: Traditionally used as a febrifuge, blood purifier, and general tonic 

. In tribal areas of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, the plant decoction is consumed to reduce body heat and treat typhoid 

 . • Leaves: Crushed leaves are applied to wounds, ulcers, and skin infections. The juice is used in eye ailments  . In folk medicine, a poultice of leaves is used to treat eczema and ringworm  . • 

Roots: Decoctions are given orally for venereal diseases (e.g., syphilis), and urinary tract infections 

Wound Healing Activity Topical application of C. hirsutus paste and extract has demonstrated accelerated wound contraction, epithelialization, and collagen synthesis in excision and incision models

Mahua (Madhuca longifolia) (Bassia longifoliai))

 

Mahua : -

The two major species of genus Madhuca found in India are Madhuca Indica (syn. Bassia latifoliai) and Madhuca longifolia (syn. Bassia longifoliai)

Mahua flowers are renowned for being extremely helpful in the treatment and prevention of numerous ailments. 

The blooms of Mahua are said to have cooling, aphrodisiac, galactagogues, and carminative properties in the Ayurvedic medical system of India. 

Additionally, they are said to be helpful for ear problems, burning sensations, and cardiac conditions. 

People with piles consume the blossoms that have been cooked in clarified butter

People with chronic bronchitis are traditionally given a glass of milk and distilled mahua flower juice to relieve their symptoms.

 An inflammation of the airways, particularly the bronchial tubes, which are in charge of delivering air to your lungs, is known as bronchitis. Due to increased mucus production, it appears as coughing, which is followed by wheezing and shortness of breath. 

The expectorant properties of Madhuca longifolia flowers help to thin mucus discharges. They also aid in boosting mucus secretion, making it simpler for the body to expel the mucus.

 Additionally, being an anti-inflammatory and antioxidant herb, it helps lessen the intensity of the inflammation, facilitating a speedy recovery.

Stomach Ulcers: 

An open sore that develops in the inner lining of the stomach or intestines is referred to as a stomach ulcer or gastric ulcer. They are brought on by an overproduction of gastric fluids, which disturbs the mucous membrane of the stomach. This mucus coating is supposed to shield the stomach from the digestive fluids that are present there. 

Mahua is said to be particularly efficient in reducing the agonizing sensations of peptic ulcers due to its strong anti-ulcer characteristics. It lessens the discomfort produced by stomach acid by inhibiting the secretion of histamine, a substance that regulates acid production in the stomach, enabling the ulcer to heal. 

Mahua also has a demulcent activity, which means it creates a barrier across the stomach's mucous membrane to shield it from the damaging effects of too much acid.

SKIN DISEASES: 

Mahua flower juice has historically been used to treat a variety of skin issues. The oleating qualities of this juice make it very useful against itching. 

Mahua leaves can help relieve symptoms of eczema when they are wrapped over the afflicted area and cooked over a fire with sesame oil.

 Because mahua contains saponins and flavonoids, animal tests show that it has strong anti-inflammatory properties. These substances are crucial for the healing and repair of wounds. 

Madhuca longifolia has also shown analgesic effect in experimental tests using alcoholic extracts, which can be utilized to relieve pain from burns and wounds.

Mahua is said to be very helpful for preventing gum disease and curing tonsillitis. In the past, people used a liquid extract made from the mahua tree's bark combined with 300 mL of water as a gargle to treat bleeding and spongy gums. 

The symptoms of inflammatory disorders like acute tonsillitis and pharyngitis are also treated with the same medication. 

According to laboratory investigations, this is because the bark of the Madhuca longifolia plant has antibacterial capabilities, which it partly owes to the presence of active substances called triterpenoid saponins.

Metabolic disorders : - 

A collection of metabolic disorders known as diabetes indicate the presence of hyperglycemia (increased glucose). The functioning of the body's major organs is impacted if neglected.

 Despite the availability of a broad variety of medications to treat diabetic symptoms, modern medicine is still unable to fully avoid the problems associated with this condition. 

Significant anti-diabetic action in animal models has been suggested by experimental research employing extracts of the bark of the mahua tree. Although the precise process is unknown, it is clear that these extracts work in a dose-dependent manner to lower the body's circulating levels of glucose. 

Another piece of research points to the effectiveness of mahua extracts in lowering cholesterol levels, which otherwise result in low insulin and high blood sugar. Finally, mahua has been shown to enhance renal function in diabetic animal models, suggesting that it may be used to stop diabetes-related nephropathy.

For  oleation in skin conditions, floral juice is massaged. In disorders of the head caused by pitta, such as sinusitis, it is also helpful as nasal drops. The flower decoction is an effective treatment for pitta disorders. The flower powder blends well with ghee and honey as a general tonic. 

Mahua is used for colitis and diarrhea because of its astringent properties. Fresh flower juice is used to great effect in raktapitta to stop bleeding

Fruits : 

According to reports, the fruits of Madhuca longifolia contain a variety of triterpenoids, including acetates of amyrins α and β, erythrodiol's 3β -monocaprylic ester, 3β -capryloxyoleanolic acid, and an acetate. N-hexacosanol, the β-glucoside of β-sitosterol, and free -sitosterol are the other ingredients that were identified and characterized. The nutshell includes quercetin, hydroquercetin, and β-glucoside of β-sitosterol

Flowers: 

Mahua flowers have a large level of vitamin C, which is what gives them their antioxidant properties

 The carotene found in mahua flowers serves as a precursor to vitamin A. Minerals like calcium and phosphorus are also present in flowers in good quantities. Mahua flowers also contain small quantities of lipids and proteins. Many studies have been conducted to determine the therapeutic benefits of mahua flowers, including their anthelminthic, antibacterial, analgesic, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, and anticancer characteristics

Vitamins A and C are the two main vitamins found in flowers. 

Mahua flowers contains good amount of Vitamin-C which is responsible for its antioxidant activity. Mahua flower contains carotene which is precursor of Vitamin-A. Flowers also contain good amount of minerals like Calcium and Phosphorus. Few amounts of proteins and fats are also present in mahua flowers.

Mahua flowers are used to cure Bronchitis, Rhematism, Diabetes, Piles, Eczema, Gums, Burns etc., and flower juice is used in the treatment of various disease and ailments.

Bark: 

Bark contains a lot of phytoconstituents, which may be the cause of a variety of activities. It is made up of sesquiterpene alcohol, erythrodiol monocaprylate betulinic acid, erythrodiol monospinasterol, and oleanic acids. 

Fruits: 

Fruits contain 55 to 65 percent husk, 10 to 15 percent sugar, 1.8 to 2.4 percent minerals, 51 to 74 mg vitamin C and 586 to 890 IU vitamin A per 100 gram. Because of these above mentioned qualities of fruits these are eaten afresh after ripening in tribal areas and poor of rural areas. 

Chemically, the fruits of Madhuca contain amyrin acetates, dihydroquecertin, -sitosterol, and quercetin. 

Seeds:-

The Mahua  Seed is large, 3-4 cm long, elliptical, flattened on one side

The main amino acids found in M. longifolia seeds are glycine, alanine, cysteine, leucine, and isoleucine . Arachidic, oleic, linoleic, myristic, palmitic, and stearic acids are also present. 

Also present in seeds are quercetin and the misaponins A and B. Sitosterol, quercetin, 3-O-Lrhamnoside, stigmasterol, n-hexacosanol, carotene, myricitin, erythrodiol, -D-glucoside, ß-sitosterol, 3-O-arabinoside, and xanthophylls are just a few of the bioactive components that have been isolated and identified in Madhuca leaves.

 Leaves: 

The  Mahua tree leaves are applied as a poultice to relieve eczema.  

Madhuca longifolia leaves are expectorant and also used for chronic bronchitis and Cushing’s disease

 

Tridax procumbens, also known as the “yellow daisy”

 Tridax procumbens L. (Asteraceae) was reported as a weed to invade in many crops, it has been long employed as a traditional drink to cure treat bronchial catarrh, diarrhea, dysentery

 Tridax procumbens Linn., a member of the Compositae family, is commonly known as ‘Ghamra’ and referred to as ‘coat buttons’ in English due to its flower's appearance. It has been widely utilized in Ayurvedic medicine for various ailments and is recommended as “Bhringraj,” a renowned remedy for liver disorders.

This plant, which possesses a variety of medicinal qualities, has been utilized for ages in the Ayurvedic system

There have been reports of antiseptic, parasiticidal, and insecticidal qualities in flowers and leaves

 This plant species exhibits diverse pharmacological properties, including immunomodulatory, antioxidant, anti-hepatotoxic, analgesic, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, and antimicrobial activities

The adaptability of the species is likely attributed to its defensive mechanisms, which include secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, carotenoids, and saponins

 It has many pharmacological activities like antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, wound healing, antileishminicidal, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antibacterial, hemostatic, hypotensive, anti-arthritic, defluoridation, etc. 

 It is rich in chemicals that have been isolated from this are flavonoids, terpenoids, lipids, polysaccharides, quercetin, isoquercetin, fumaric acid, centaureidin, luteolin, β-sitosterol and puerarine

 In India, traditionally it has been used as an anticoagulant, antimicrobial, insect repellent, and as a wound healing agent. It has been used for the treatment of bronchial catarrh, malaria, stomachache, diarrhea, epilepsy, diabetes, high blood pressure, hemorrhage, and liver problems, and as a hair tonic. A decoction of the leaves of this plant is used as an ethnomedicine to treat infectious skin diseases. It is broadly used in wound healing to stop hemorrhage from cuts, bruises, and wounds.

 There have been reports of antiseptic, parasiticidal, and insecticidal qualities in flowers and leaves

1) People from Uttarakhand have used medicinal plants for thousands of years. T. procumbens leaf juice has been used to stop bleeding in cuts and wounds

Additionally, leprosy, eczema, boils, cuts, wounds, sores, stomachaches, toothaches, ulcers, and eye diseases are treated with this herb

Tridax procumbens, also known as the “yellow daisy”, is a traditional Ayurvedic herb native to Asia, belonging to the Asteraceae family. 

It has been used in natural remedies for various medicinal purposes . 

The plant has a wide range of bioactivities, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory effects 

The phytochemical composition of T. procumbens has been extensively studied, revealing the presence of various compounds such as tannins, saponins, steroids, alkaloids, phytosterols, essential oils, etc. 

These compounds have been found in different extracts of the plant, such as ethanol extracts, water extracts, and leaf extracts. 

The leaves of this plant have been considered a potential source of nutraceuticals and functional food due to their high content of bioactive compounds. Its traditional usage includes antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory activities 

Phytochemical components like tannin (by titration), total saponins (by gravimetry), total polyphenols, and total flavonoids (by UV-visible spectrophotometer), were determined for their respective contents

 Significant therapeutic benefits against malaria, dysentery, diarrhea, bronchial catarrh, blood pressure, hair loss, stomach discomfort, headache, and hair loss have been discovered

Additionally, it is beneficial to stop bleeding from cuts and bruises and cure wounds. There have been reports of antiseptic, insecticidal, and parasiticidal qualities in flowers and leaves

Several pharmacological activities have been associated with it, including hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, wound healing, anti-diabetic, hypotensive, immunomodulating, prevention of hair loss, promotion of hair growth, and anti-microbial against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Leaf juice has antiseptic, insecticidal, and parasiticidal qualities

It is used as a treatment for , insect repellent and used to stop bleeding from cuts, bruises, and wounds.

Marigold flowers (Calendula officinalis)

 

The researchers ground pot marigold flowers (Calendula officinalis) into a fine powder and isolated proteins in four sequential liquid extractions, collecting different protein molecules into each mixture. Their lab tests showed that: 

• Some protein extracts contained high levels of glutamic acid and aspartic acid, which could add umami taste to foods.
• Marigold proteins stayed stable up to 221 degrees Fahrenheit (105 degrees Celsius), which is hotter than temperatures tolerated by other plant proteins like pea and chickpea, suggesting the flower’s proteins would keep their structure better in heated foods.
• Two protein extracts had excellent emulsifying capacity, or the ability to keep oil droplets distributed in water, suggesting their suitability for salad dressings, mayonnaise and dairy substitutes.

Tunga Mustalu (Cyperus scariousus /rotundus )

 Cyperus rotundus L., (family Cyperaceae), also known as purple nutsedge or nutgrass, is a common perennial plant. This is an erect, glabrous, grass-like herb with fibrous roots that typically grows from 7-40 cm tall and reproduces extensively by rhizomes and tubers. The rhizomes are initially white and fleshy with scaly leaves and then become fibrous, wiry, and very dark brown with age

C. rotundus have the Properties of analgesic, alternative, astringent, antispasmodic, antibacterial, carminative, contraceptive, demulcent, emmenagogue, emollient, febrifuge, immunostimulant, laxative, stimulative, tonic, vermifuge. It is a multipurpose plant, widely used in traditional medicine around the world to treat various disease

Its extracts and compounds isolated from purple nutsedge have medicinal properties such as the reduction of fever, inflammation, and pain. The literature contains numerous references to the use of this plant’s roots for essential oils and its seeds for food products. Tuber extracts may reduce nausea and act as a muscle relaxant

A number of pharmacological and biological activities including anti-Candida, antiinflammatory, antidiabetic, antidiarrhoeal, cytoprotective, antimutagenic, antibacterial, and antioxidant, activities have been reported for this plant

The phytochemical investigation of C rotundus has revealed the presence of flavanol, glycoside, saponin, phenol, terpenoids cardiac glycosides  

Chemical constituents : 

cineol(+) copadiene 

copaene

cyperol 

cyperolone 

epoxyguaiene

isocyperol 

isokobusone 

kodusone

mustakone 

patchilene

(+) rotunmdone 

a-  b- selinine 

sugenol 

b-sito sterol etc.  

Agarwood

 

Agarwood, eaglewood, oud, aloeswood, and gaharu are some of the names of the highly valuable fragrant heartwood used for non-timber purposes and produced by the Aquilaria species, which belongs to the Thymelaeaceae family.

Ex: Aquilaria sinensis, A. malaccensis, A. filaria, and Gyrinops versteegii

Agarwood is formed when Aquilaria trees are wounded and exposed to biotic and abiotic stresses.

The infection triggers the trees’ defense mechanism, causing resin to be produced, which aids the trees in suppressing the growth of the microbes infecting the trees in a process known as tylosis 

From the infection, the tree undergoes a biochemical reaction that produces oleoresin, which causes the color of the wood to eventually change from a lighter to a darker color, becoming what is commonly referred to as agarwood

Wild-type agarwood takes years to produce, and few traders are willing to wait so long. Furthermore, only a small number of Aquilaria are infected in the wild and produce agarwood, and the only way to be certain that the tree contains the desired resin is to cut down the trees

Biological inoculation is also another alternative method to agarwood formation and has been proven by many researchers to help induce agarwood formation. It is necessary for the tree to first be wounded before it can be infected by microbes to induce agarwood formation. However, not all fungi can promote agarwood production; some of the species identified in agarwood-producing trees are Fusarium, Lasiodiplodia, Penicillium, and Aspergillus, amongst others

Inoculation of endophytic fungi on Aquilaria trees has also been proven to produce resin in as fast as 6 months

Agarwood and its products, either as oil, smoke, or powder admixtures, are well known for their bioactivity in controlling various fungal pathogens and their unique medicinal properties globally

Several chemical compounds have been reported to be identified from agarwood such as chromone derivates, terpenoids, flavonoids, benzophenones, lignans, benzenoid derivates, phenolic compounds, triterpenes, steroids, and other chemical compounds

Chromones  act as potential and remarkable pharmacological compounds containing various bioactivities such as antimicrobial, antiviral, anticancer, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, enzyme inhibition, antifeedant, antidepressant, antiobesity, and antihypersensitive properties, including antagonistic activity in melanin-concentrating hormone receptor-1 

India’s North-Eastern Region (NER) in India  is characterised by rich ecological diversity, undulating landscapes, and abundant biodiversity. The region serves as an important hub for high-value plantation and agroforestry crops, among which Agarwood holds particular economic and cultural significance as a premium aromatic resource. As of January 2026, India hosts nearly 150 million agarwood trees, with about 90 percent located in the North-Eastern states, where cultivation is integrated into plantation and agroforestry programmes. 

Agarwood, also known internationally as oud or agar, is a highly valued resinous wood widely used in traditional medicine, religious practices, and luxury perfumery. 

The plant is primarily harvested for agarwood chips, powder (churan), and essential oil, while other value-added products include agarwood beads and, occasionally, carved artefacts.

 In addition, the leaves are used to prepare agarwood tea. 

North-Eastern states in India have been encouraged to develop area-expansion plans supported by geospatial mapping initiatives, particularly in Tripura and Assam.

 Export promotion measures have also been strengthened through enhanced annual export quotas under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), with limits set at 151,080 kg for agarwood chips and 7,050 kg for agarwood oil. 

Due to its importance in culture, religion, and value, agarwood is highly sought after, and the trees are often overexploited and traded illegally, which has placed it on the list of endangered species in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) in 1995